The coupled photovoltaic-energy storage-charging station (PV-ES-CS) is an important approach of promoting the transition from fossil energy consumption to low-carbon energy use. However, the integrated charging station is underdeveloped. One of the key reasons for this is that there lacks the evaluation of its economic and environmental benefits.
Fig. A1. Local optimal solution and global optimal solution. In order to make the integer variables (the number of charging piles) optimizable in an effective way, the charging demand of EVs in the PV-ES-CS is calculated under different numbers of charging piles at first, then the demand is called in the optimization program directly.
The capacity optimization model of the integrated photovoltaic- energy storage-charging station was built. The case study bases on the data of 21 charging stations in Beijing. The construction of the integrated charging station shows the maximum economic and environment benefit in hospital and minimum in residential.
Besides of solar PV, the PV-ES-CS system can buy electricity from power grids. The electricity is bought from the power grid only at the daily valley price. The electricity from the PV-ES-CS system is not only used for EVs charging, but also for hospital, teaching building and other kinds of building uses.
In HEVs, the batteries are charged when IC engine is in operation or with the help of regenerative breaking but the condition is its battery should operate in charge sustaining mode (i.e., SOC of battery should be same at start and end of the trip) (Li et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2021).
Plug-in HEV can run on both battery and gasoline. These batteries can be charged at a charging station or at home using an ordinary plug or by a regenerative braking system (Waraich et al., 2013).
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